Write a memorandum Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Write a memorandum - Essay Example Due to this, the City Council is losing significant revenue collections, crime has gone high, the decline in the waterfront area is more real, and the economy is dwindling. As a result, the council is deciding on how to react on these complaints. In doing this, the Council will use the Measure A, that seeks to revitalize the economy on the waterfront area where the Marina sits. It also relies on the amended Referendum 3 that aims at limiting the government’s eminent domain power by restricting the permissible interpretations of the â€Å"public use† requirement for eminent domain (Dyson 1-2). The council seeks to take over the waterfront area and compensate the owners like Mr. Park. Henceforth, the city plans to transfer the land to public use where it hopes to derive jobs, revenues, and minimize noise on Elm Street. The City also relies on Kelo v. City of New London, 545 U.S. 469 case studies (2005) to succeed in its quest. Mr. Park’s house, marina is on that st reet and the council is bound to make it a stadium. Hence, Mr. Park is seeking legal advice on how to stop the council from taking his waterfront home. In 2000, New London, a city in Connecticut, used its eminent domain powers to acquire private property for purposes of selling it for private use with an aim of boosting the city’s economy. In doing this, New London sought to create more than 1000 jobs, revitalize the economy, and increase tax revenues. As such, aggrieved owners took the matter to court arguing that the seized property was not for public use and the Fifth Amendment Takings limits the government from seizing private property for public use without just compensation. The legal question in this question was whether the city’s seizure and selling of the reference property is of â€Å"public use† according to the Takings Clause of the Fifth Amendment. In a majority ruling, the Connecticut Supreme Court ruled for New London qualifying the city’s

Chagas Disease Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Chagas Disease - Essay Example More commonly, it is referred to as paleoparasitology (Ferreira et al., 2000). The discovery of the presumed parasite in the human remains is then extrapolated to the present relationship between the host and the parasite Chagas disease or American trypanosomiasis is caused by Trypanosoma cruzi. The reservoir exists in wild amongst various animal species constituting the sylvatic cycle (Afuderheide et al., 2004). The vector for its transmission is reduviid bug (family Reduviidae, subfamily Triatominae). These insects hide in the crevices, nests or human dwellings in case of domestic cycle and emerge at night to feed upon the blood of their prey (Afuderheide et al., 2004). The infection is caused by rubbing of the bitten area where the parasite deposits the faecal matter (Afuderheide et al., 2004). This leads to entry of the parasite into the blood stream from the breached skin or conjunctiva. Parasitemia may lead to acute manifestations of myocarditis or meningoencephalitis that have a mortality rate of 10% (Afuderheide et al., 2004). The disease may progress to a chronic stage characterised by flare up of febrile episodes and progressive damage to myocardium or gut leading to dilated cardiomyopathy or segmental paralysis of parts of gastrointestinal system respectively (Afuderheide et al., 2004). Researchers to study the archaeological remains for the evide... These findings were supplemented by discovery of dwellings made of mud bricks, which is a common habitat of these bugs.Molecular studies included immunochemical methods and electron microscopy. Histological sections have also demonstrated the parasite even in desiccated mice tissue (Bastos et al. 1996). However, the most vital tool that has enabled the authors to draw important inferences regarding the evolution and epidemiology of Chagas disease is the extraction and amplification of DNA segments of T. cruzi from mummified tissues.Origin of samples: Atacama Desert with its dry hot winds and arid climate has been a source of mummified tissues for many researchers (Ferreira et al., 2000; Afuderheide et al., 2004; Guhl et al., 2000). This type of climate favours the preservation of body tissues in a dehydrated form and nearly arrests its decomposition. Moreover, this geographical region coincides with the distribution of the disease, along coastal region of South America in Peru and Chile. South American natives buried their dead in shallow sandy soils that led to preservation of tissues in a desiccated mummified form Laboratory techniques: This desiccated tissue is rehydrated and pulverised and DNA is extracted. The extracted DNA is then amplified using the Polymerase chain reaction. The amplified DNA participates in the hybridization process with standardised primers and probes under controlled conditions. Hybridisation of the DNA extracted from the mummified tissue samples with the probe nucleotides constitutes a positive test result. Hybridisation can be identified by gel electrophoresis and analysis of bands by radioisotope techniques. Authentication and sources of error Concern has been raised

Dolutegravir Drug for Virologic Suppression

Dolutegravir Drug for Virologic Suppression Graphical abstract: Dolutigravir, second generation integrase inhibitor: A new hope for HIV patients Geeta Yadav Mesra, Ranchi Abstract: Undeterred efforts have been made and will be made in future to make it possible for HIV-infected individuals to achieve the goals of virologic suppression and one more result of this rigrous exercise is dolutegravir drug. It is the recent integrase inhibitor approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for use in the treatment-naà ¯ve, treatment-experienced, HIV-infected adults who have previously taken HIV therapy and also for children ages 12 years and older weighing at least 40 kilograms (kg) who are treatment-naà ¯ve or treatment-experienced but have not previously taken other integrase strand transfer inhibitors. This article has reviewed all the aspects of drug including the structural and functional analyses, in vitro activity, pharmacokinetics, drug-drug interactions, MOA, metabolism, excretion, dosing/ adverse effects and resistance profile of dolutegravir. Dolutegravir is a potent and generally well tolerated antiretroviral agent that may play an impor tant role in the treatment of patients harboring resistance to other antiretrovirals.Some new combinations of drug with other antiretrovirals are also in pipeline which may hope to increase the immunologic response of the HIV patients. Key words:Dolutegravir,  antiretroviral,  integrase inhibitor,  HIV Introduction With the use of antiretrovirals with improved potency, tolerability, and resistance profiles, people with HIV are living longer and receiving longer-term care but even after so much advancement in therapy, they are struggling with an unknown fear of death [1, 2]. So, the need for new antiretroviral agents still continues to be substantial even after more than 20 years into the era of antiretroviral therapy, which have better tolerability, higher barriers to resistance, distinct resistance profiles, and fewer drug–drug interactions. These features of desiring drug have been inspiring the scientist all over the world to develop new agents that are not only focused on traditional targets but also on new novel therapeutic targets. The development of drugs targeting on critical steps in the life cycle of HIV-1 are drug classes that include HIV-1 reverse-transcriptase inhibitors (both nucleoside analogues and non-nucleoside inhibitors), HIV-1 protease inhibitors, and HIV-1 entry inh ibitors (fusion inhibitors and CCR5 antagonists). The newest class of drugs in HIV treatment is the integrase inhibitor (INI) class. Retroviral DNA Integration with the host DNA is an essential step in the life cycle of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) [3], as shown in figure 1. This integration process is facilitated by the viral integrase (IN) enzyme which catalyzes the insertion of the viral DNA into the host genome in a multistep process. The process of HIV-1 integration occurs through 3 essential steps: formation of the preintegration viral DNA complex, 3’ processing and strand transfer [4]. HIV IN recognizes and binds specific sequences in the long terminal repeats (LTRs) of the viral retrotranscribed DNA in the cytoplasm. After DNA binding, IN cleaves GT dinucleotides from the 3’ termini of the linear cDNA in a process called 3’ processing .The processed viral DNA, as part of the preintegration complex, is then translocated into the nucleus, where IN inserts the viral DNA into the host chromosome by a process called strand transfer [4-6]. Figure 1 Schematic representation of HIV integration Abbreviations: LTRs, long-term repeats; PIC, preintegration complex. Integrase inhibitors (INIs) represent a class of drugs for the treatment of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infected individuals, blocking HIV genome transfer and integration into the host cell DNA [7]. In this category, first drug which got FDA approval was raltegravir (RAL) which have been found to be highly effective for the treatment of antiretroviral- naive and antiretroviral-experienced subjects and one more recent drug is elvitegravir (EVG) [8-12]. However, these first-generation INIs share common resistance pathways. During clinical studies of RAL, subjects with virologic failure and reduced RAL susceptibility typically are found to have virus with 1 of 3 signature mutational pathways (ie, N155H, Q148H/K/R, or Y143C/H/R) in the integrase gene [13]. So, continuing RAL treatment in these circumstances may lead to the addition of secondary mutations or pathways and N155H may evolve to Y143 or Q148 pathways [10]. In addition to this, EVG does not appear to have activity agains t RAL-resistant isolates and same case is with RAL [14-16]. Therefore, there is a need for an INI with a high barrier to resistance and activity in subjects with human immunodeficiency virus type. So, recent addition included in this category is Dolutegravir (DTG). This review article aims to covers all the aspects related to the dolutegravir which will help the scientists, academicians and common men to statisfy their knowledge pangs, like in vitro activity, pharmacokinetics, drug-drug interactions, MOA, metabolism, excretion, dosing/ adverse effects and resistance profile of dolutegravir as shown in figure 2, which exemplify methodology and evaluation of dolutegravir with the help of different information sources Dolutegravir (DTG) discovered by a Shionogi and GlaxoSmithKline research collaboration, is a second generation novel HIV-1 integrase strand transfer inhibitor having activity against INI resistant viruses. In addition to it, also have favorable pharmacokinetic properties [17, 18]. It is indicated for use in combination with other antiretroviral agents for the treatment of HIV-1 in adults and children aged 12 years and older weighing at least 40 kg. It is available as a small, yellow, 50-mg tablet. Moreover, it can be taken with or without food and at any time of the day. Structural and functional analyses of Dolutegravir (DTG) Dolutegravir (DTG, S/GSK1349572) effectively inhibits HIV-1 IN variants which are resistant to the first-generation INIs. The structural basis for the increased potency of DTG resistant INIs is that it occupies almost the same physical space within the IN active site and make contacts with the ÃŽ ²4-ÃŽ ±2 loop of the catalytic core domain. Dolutegravir molecule has been divided into three main structural parts like tricyclic metal-chelating core, difluorophenyl ring and linker group which play a significant role in its binding to the protein as shown in figure 3. Tricyclic metal-chelating core binds to the intasome active site with the three coplanar oxygen atoms coordinated to Mg2+ cations The extended linker region connecting the metal chelating core and the halobenzyl group of DTG allows it to enter farther deeper into the pocket vacated by the displaced viral DNA base and to make more intimate contacts with viral DNA [19]. Figure 3 Structural and functional analysis of Dolutegravir IN VITRO ACTIVITY Dolutegravir has shown potent in vitro activity against both wild-type HIV and many INI-resistant mutants. It has potential for a higher genetic barrier to resistance. Dolutegravir has shown potent in vitro activity against HIV-1, with mean EC50 values of 0.5 nM (0.21 ng/mL) to 2.1 nM (0.85 ng/mL), IC50 of 2.7 nM and an IC90 of 2.0 nM in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) and MT-4 cells. It also shows activity against HIV-2 virus with EC50 of 0.09 nM to 0.61 nM in PBMC assays. Cellular toxicity is also in the micromolar range for a variety of cell types, indicating that the observed antiviral effect of S/GSK1349572 are not due to cytotoxicity. S/GSK1349572 shows potency against all integrase- resistant single mutants with an FC as high as 3.6-fold. In the presence of S/GSK1349572 no virus with high resistance to S/GSK1349572 was observed with 32 nM or higher concentrations of S/GSK1349572 in the culture medium. In vitro experimental studies reported that dolutegravir does not cause toxicity when used in combination, but had a synergistic effect with nevirapine, efavirenz, abacavir, stavudine, lopinavir, amprenavir, and enfuvirtide, as well as an additive effect when only used in combination with maraviroc. Efficacy of dolutegravir is also not affected on exposure to the adefovir and ribavirin [20]. Pharmacokinetics Dolutegravir has a favourable pharmacokinetic profile without requirement of boosters and its terminal half-life is approximately 13–15 h [21, 22]. AUC0–24h and Cmax values are slightly less than the dose in the range of 2–50mg following single and multiple doses. One noteable change is the nonlinearness in Cmax and AUC with the increase in dose, So, a twice-daily 50mg regimen has been evaluated in the phase 3 ARV-experienced clinical trial rather than a once-daily 100mg dose [22-24]. The geometric mean steady-state concentration at the end of the dosing interval (Ctau) for a 50 mg dose was reported to be 1.6 ÃŽ ¼g/mL, which was approximately 25-fold higher than the protein-adjusted IC90 (0.064 ÃŽ ¼g/mL). A monotherapy study of, 10 days of dolutegravir 50mg daily dose in integrase inhibitor naà ¯ve HIV-1-infected adults demonstrated a 2.48 mean log10 reduction in HIV-1 RNA. This reduction was sustained for 4 days after discontinuation of dolutegravir only becoz of plasma concentrations which remained above the protein adjusted IC90. Overall, variability in exposure was minimal: 50 mg dosing to steady-state conditions achieved a geometric mean Cmax of 3.34 mg/ml (16% coefficient of variation), an AUC0–24h of 43.4 mg_h/ml (20% coefficient of variation), a t1/2 of 12.0 h (22% coefficient of variation) and a C24h of 0.83 mg/ml (26% coefficient of variation) [22]. A pediatric granule formulation of dolutegravir is currently in development. Preliminary data investigation reported that granules mixed in purified water have increased exposure compared with the tablet formulation with a geometric least-squares mean ratio (90% CI) for AUC0-inf of 1.57 (1.45–1.69) [23]. Drug–drug interactions Dolutegravir pharmacokinetics has been evaluated in a single-dose crossover study for the effect of food and found that its absorption is modestly increased with food according to fat content [24]. Fat content affects the absorption of dolutegravir as noticed by the increased median Tmax from 2h to 3, 4, and 5h for low-fat, moderate-fat, and high-fat meals, respectively. Whereas dolutegravir AUC increased from 33 to 66% when administered with low-fat (300 kcal, 7% fat), moderate fat (600 kcal, 30% fat) and high fat food (870 kcal, 53% fat), respectively. [22, 24]. But these changes are not expected to affect safety or efficacy, So, dolutegravir can be dosed without regard to food. Dolutegravir causes drug-drug interactions with integrase inhibitors and some other drugs which is shown in Table 2. Table 2. Dolutegravir (DTG) drug interaction with integrase inhibitors and other category drugs S.No Interacting drug class Interacting drug Effect on dolutegravir 1 Antiretrovirals NRTIs Tenofovir No significant effect observed[25] 2 Antiretrovirals NNRTIs Efavirenz DTG AUC, Cmax, and Cmin decreased 57, 39, and 75% [26] Etravirine DTG AUC, Cmax, and Cmin decreased 70.6, 51.6, and 87.9%. [27] ETR/DRV/r administration results in 25, 11.8, and37.1% decreases in DTG AUC, Cmax, and Cmin ETR/LPV/r administration results in 11, 7, and 28% increases in DTG AUC, Cmax, and Cmin [27] 3 Antiretrovirals PIs Darunavir/r DTG AUC, Cmax, and Cmin decreased 22, 11, and 38% [28] Atazanavir DTG AUC, Cmax, and Cmin increased 91, 50, and 180% [29] Lopinavir/r No significant effect observed [28] Fosamprenavir DTG AUC, Cmax, and Cmin decreased 35, 24, and 49% [30] Tipranavir DTG AUC, Cmax, and Cmin decreased 59, 46, and 76% [26] 4 Antituberculosis drugs Rifampin DTG AUC and Cmin increased 33 and 22% with DTG 50mg b.i.d.+ rifampin 600mg q.d. compared with DTG 50mg daily [31] Rifabutin DTG AUC and Cmin decreased 5 and 30%, Cmax increased 15 % [32] 5 Acid-reducing agents- PPIs/H2 RA Omeprazole No significant effect observed [33] Antacids DTG AUC, Cmax, and Cmin decreased 73.6, 72.4, and 74.4% [33] DTG, Dolutegravir; ETR, Etravirine; EVG, Elvitegravir; LPV, Lopinavir; NNRTI, Non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor; NRTI, Nucleos(t)ide reverse transcriptase inhibitor; PI, Protease Inhibitor; PPI, Proton pump inhibitor; r, Ritonavir; RAL, Raltegravir. Mechanism of Action Dolutegravir inhibits HIV integrase by binding to the integrase active site and blocking the strand transfer step of retroviral deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) integration which is essential for the HIV replication cycle as demonstrated in Figure 4. In this process, the integrase inhibitor chelate with the two Mg2+ ions in the integrase catalytic active site, unable the integrase enzyme to complete the strand transfer [21]. Inhibition of the integrase strand transfer reaction by DTG has been confirmed in studies with live virus, which demonstrated an accumulation of 2- long terminal repeat (2-LTR) circles in treated cells at DTG concentrations Figure 4. Mechanism of action of DTG Metabolism/Excretion Dolutegravir metabolism occurs through CYP3A4 (UGT1A1 glucuronidation) a major pathway while UGT1A3 and UGT1A9 are only minor pathways, which is catalysed by UDP-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT) 1A1 enzyme. In vitro studies reported that it is not a cytochrome P450 (CYP) inducer and neither an inhibitor. However, dolutegravir is an OCT2 inhibitor [21, 36]. Dolutegravir is also a substrate of UGT1A3, UGT1A9, BCRP, and P-gp in vitro [37]. It is the predominant circulating compound in plasma and the renal elimination of unchanged drug is extremely low ( Figure 5. Metabolic pathway of dolutegravir Dose/Adverse effects Dolutegravir tablets are usually taken unboosted, orally and without regard to food [39]. Different dose combination studies with other drugs are reported to be performed to find the best combination with high resistance barrier as shown in table1. The most common adverse effects reported to be associated with dolutegravir Phase III SPRING-2 trial were nausea, headache, nasophryngitis, diarrhea and also a slight increase in creatinine level due to inhibition of creatinine secretion; however, dolutegravir had no effect on glomerular filtration rate [47, 48]. Some common drug -related adverse events were also notified during Phase III VIKING-3 trial in treatment-experienced subjects were diarrhea, nausea, and headache [49]. S.No Phase study Patients Dolutegravir vs other drug combinatons 1 Phase III SPRING-2 Study Treatment naà ¯ve Dolutegravir 50 mg once daily versus raltegravir 400 mg twice daily, each in combination with either tenofovir DF/emtricitabine (Truvada) or abacavir/lamivudine (Epzicom) 40 2 Phase III SINGLE Study Treatment naà ¯ve Dolutegravir 50 mg in combination with abacavir/lamivudine (Epzicom) once daily versus tenofovir DF/emtricitabine/ efavirenz (Atripla) once daily41 3 Phase III SAILING Study Treatment experienced, integrase inhibitor-naà ¯ve Dolutegravir 50 mg once daily versus raltegravir 400 mg twice daily, each in combination with background therapy42 4 Phase III VIKING-3 Study Treatment-experienced with previous or current failure on raltegravir or elvitegravir Open-label dolutegravir 50 mg twice daily with current failing background regimen for 7 days, then with an optimized background regimen43 5 Phase III VIKING-4 Study Treatment-experienced with virus resistant to raltegravir and/ or elvitegravir at screening Dolutegravir 50 mg twice daily versus placebo , each in combination with current failing background regimen for 7 days, then with open-label dolutegravir 50 mg twice daily in combination with an optimized background regimen for both arms44 6 Combination under study A fixed-dose combination (FDC) tablet (dolutegravir 50 mg abacavir 600 mg/lamivudine 300 mg) and a dolutegravir pediatric granule45,46 Resistance Dolutegravir (DTG) have been found to have a higher genetic barrier to resistance than raltegravir and elvitegravir [50]. Primary integrase resistance mutations associated with dolutegravir have not yet been identified. But viruses containing G140S, E138K, R148H, R263K, and G140S/Q148HRK mutations may show some level of resistance to dolutegravir. [50,39]. Raltegravir-resistant virus carrying a mutation at position Q148 had more reduced susceptibility to dolutegravir than isolates with other raltegravir mutations [51]. In vitro selection studies reported R263K mutation which commonly emerges in integrase in the presence of dolutegravir. R263K confers low-level resistance against dolutegravir and diminishes HIV DNA integration and viral fitness and no secondary mutation H51Y and E138K has been shown to compensate for the defects associated with the R263K primary resistance mutation against dolutegravir. All secondary mutations have a modest effect on resistance against this drug [52, 53]. Future of dolutegravir ViiV Healthcare has requested US regulatory for the approval of a new single-tablet regimen (STR) containing dolutegravir, abacavir and lamivudine. A European regulatory application has also been submitted, according to the company. This combination, taken as separate pills, worked well in the aforementioned trials. If approved, the new co-formulation will offer the first one-pill, once-daily regimen that does not contain tenofovir/emtricitabine and could be particularly beneficial for people with, or at risk for, kidney disease or osteoporosis. Results from the primary analysis, presented at the Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy (ICAAC) also reported that 90% of people taking dolutegravir and 83% taking darunavir/ritonavir achieved undetectable viral load in a snapshot analysis, with dolutegravir meeting the criteria for statistical superiority. Based on these findings the researchers concluded that dolutegravir provide a potent and well-tolerated new option for first-line HIV treatment [54]. Conclusion HIV-1 integrase is a unique target for antiretroviral therapy. Dolutegravir, a once-daily HIV strand integrase inhibitor currently approved for HIV-1 infected patients, provides at least equivalent antiviral efficacy and better tolerability compared with approved antiretroviral drugs. Efforts are ongoing for the approval of new single-tablet regimen (STR) containing dolutegravir, abacavir and lamivudine and also it would minimize the number of pills required for effective and acceptable antiretroviral treatment. Because of its unique mechanism of action, demonstrated virologic activity, resistance profile and tolerability, it is a significant advancement in HIV-1 therapeutics which will help HIV patients in long run.

Islam :: essays research papers

The five pillars The Five Pillars of Islam are the structure of Muslim religion. They are the testimony of faith, prayer, giving, fasting during the month of Ramadan, and if you are lucky the pilgrimage to Makkah once in a lifetime. The first pillar, entitled the testament of faith, exploits the Belief in one God, Allah, whom constitutes the very foundation of Islam. Prayer is the next pillar of Islam. Prayers do not take more than five minutes and are required five times daily. In prayer, a person feels inner happiness, peace, and a direct connection between the worshipper and Allah. Giving Zakat, other known as supporting the needy, is the third pillar of Islam. Initially, Zakat was the issue that altered Muhammad’s views of the world and turned him into a political figure. Fasting for the month of Ramadan is the fourth pillar of Islam. Even the Quran states, "O you who believe fasting is prescribed to you as it was prescribed to those before you so that you can learn Taqwa" (Quran 2:183). Ramadan consists of fasting from dawn until sundown while concurrently abstaining from food, drink, and sexual contact. Finally, the pilgrimage to Mecca is the last pillar. Although these conditions seem intense, there are actually many benefits to these submitters. The temptations of the world seem to erase our understanding for religion and g-d. Fasting will remind you of what has been handed down to us. Ramadan can draw one closer to g-d by seclusion from the surrounding world. Ramadan will help achieve a willingness to give to the needy. Now you have been in their shoes and understand how it feels. Understanding discipline is important, since g-d has given us a free will, and the torture of Ramadan is a great reminder of how to view life. In the Quran one can find references to ritual prayer or salat. Holy Qur'an 2:149 "From whencesoever thou startest forth turn thy face in the direction of the Sacred Mosque; that is indeed the truth from thy Lord.

Domestic Violence Against Women Essay

Various types of relationships exist between men and women. The status of women has endured a constant change; thus changing the way they are perceived by others in relationships. Despite numerous healthy relationships experienced, there are those which have negative consequences to those involved; one such relationship is that regarding domestic violence. The term domestic violence according to Walker and Gavin refers to â€Å"an intimate relationship between two adults in which one partner uses a pattern of assault and intimidating acts to assert power and control over the other partner† (Walker & Gavin, 2011). Within the context of this paper, domestic violence will refer to violent relationships between men and women where it is the women who are victimized. The purpose of this paper is tri-fold: (1) to address the development of domestic violence; and (2) to examine various attitudes regarding domestic violence; and (3) to discuss ways in which society is dealing with the issue of domestic violence. Emergence and Development According to feminists, strong patriarchal values held within a society are linked with increased risk of harm towards women (Watto, 2009, p. 561). Patriarchy exists in most societies worldwide (Watto, 2009, p. 563). The term patriarchy refers to the father having full authority of his family (Romito, 2008, p. 30). Within society’s retaining this belief system, the wife and children are the father’s property (Romito, 2008, p. 146). Many findings have developed according to Totten. He found: 1) labor divided by sexual division to be normal; 2) men are to conquer women as sexual objects; 3) abusive behavior is a justified means for resolving conflict and 4) women should respect, obey and depend on men (Totten, 2003, p. ). Thus, one can conclude that family violence is linked to the ideology of patriarchy (Duffy & Momirov, 1997, p. 123). As well, it is important to note that we live in a society which religion is prevalent, the church agrees with patriarchy (L. Walker, personal communication, October 3rd, 2011). Duffy & Momiov (1997) state: Their histories are united in the longstanding moral obligation of men, as com manded by the Church, to ensure that their wives and children behave themselves properly. Male violence may be legitimately employed to ensure such behavior. It is the patriarch’s Christian duty to â€Å"save their souls† (p. 123). Furthermore, considering society and the church agreed with the ideology of patriarchy, one can conclude that domestic violence was a private issue and was unheard or spoken of. The division of labor which has strong historical roots in society contributes to women being victimized. During the Industrial Revolution, men were seen as responsible for making the wage to support the family and the women was responsible for her role in the home as housekeeper and mother (Hutchings, 1992). Unfortunately, according to Hutchings (1992), a man may seek to have more power by abusing his wife if he feels as though he is lacking employment in his occupation. It is the male’s financial contributions into his home that gives him the opportunity to abuse his wife (Hutchings, 1992). Contributing Factors Leading to Domestic Violence as an Issue Domestic violence against women would never have become an issue if it wasn’t for the development of feminism (Duffy & Momirov, 1997, p. 23). Feminism is divided into different waves. The two waves which had a connection to the development of an issue of violence against women were one and two. It was prior to the development of the second wave of feminism, that domestic violence against women was thought to be a private issue that did not warrant a concern from the public (Blanchfield, Margesson, & Seelke, 2009, pg 1). The first wave occurred in Britain during the years of 1870-1930, it was concerned with women’s citizen rights and the right to vote; this wave lead to women gaining these rights (Charles, 2000, p. 22). Within this wave, women were concerned with being granted the vote (Crow & Gotell, 2009, p. 9). The second wave of feminism emerged in North American and Western Europe during the 1960’s and focused on women’s liberation (Charles, 2000, p. 1). During this wave, the feminists came to believe that the state had the ability to demolish policies which affected women thus granting them certain rights (Charles, 2000, p. 5). Goals of the second wave were highlighted by Charles and deal with women raising domestic violence as an issue. He states: During the 1970s, the movement formulated seven demands. These were for equal pay; equal education and job opportunities; free contraception and abortion on demand; free 24-hour urseries; financial and legal independence; an end to all discrimination against lesbians and a woman’s right to define her own sexuality; freedom from intimidation by threat or use of violence or sexual coercion, regardless of marital status, and an end to all laws, assumptions and institutions which perpetuate male dominance and men’s aggression towards women (Charles, 2000, p. 1). Successes were gained from the development of feminism. Male privilege was partially removed with the success of the feminist movements (Crow & Gotell, 2009, p. 59). Women’s opportunities increased in relation to jobs, benefits, education, independence and affluence (Crow & Gotell, 2009, p. 173). Due to women’s gain of independence, they raised their expectations of men and were more unwilling to excuse unacceptable male behavior (Crow & Gotell, 2009, p. 173). With the changing of expectations held by women, domestic assault and rape laws were changes and policies which banned harassment in the workplace were created and made common (Crow & Gotell, 2009, p. 59). Addressing the Issue The 1960’s give rise to the battered women’s movement (Schneider, 1991). Prior to the development of women’s movement, battering of women was not recognized (Schneider, 1991). This movement viewed battering as a result of gender relations which reflected female subordination and male power (Schneider, 1991). This movement strived to decrease the silence surrounding the issue of abused women and decrease society’s tolerance of the acts (Crow & Gotell, 2009, p. 170). Furthermore, this movement has provided public education to increase awareness, services to those involved and constructed legal remedies to address and stop the abuse (Schneider, 1991). Due to the increased awareness of abuse against women, the Government of Canada has made an effort to decrease the occurrence. During May of 1981, the London Police were the first Canadian police department to implement laying charges regarding spousal assault (Department of Justice, 2009). According to the Department of Justice (2009), In May 1982, the House of Commons’ Standing Committee on Health, Welfare and Social Affairs tabled its report, Report on Violence in the Family—Wife Battering. In it, the committee noted that police training (at that time) generally instructed against the arrest of a batterer unless he was actually found hitting the victim or unless the victim had suffered injuries that were â€Å"severe enough to require a certain number of stitches. During July of 1982, the House of Commons suggested that Parliament push all police to lay charges for acts of wife beating considering they lay charges for other forms of assault (Department of Justice, 2009). It was also suggested in 1983 by the Federal Provincial Task Force on Justice for Victims of Crime that there be written guidelines developed to direct officers to treat wife assault as a crime and that the act of prosecution be made without the woman’s consent (Department of Justice, 2009). Guidelines were issued to Crown prosecutors and police as to how to deal with spousal abuse by 1986 from the Attorneys General and Solicitors General (Department of Justice, 2009). These guidelines required police to file charges if they had reasonable grounds to believe the women had been assaulted (Department of Justice, 2009). The Government of Canada has been making adjustments to current bills. Bill C-15 was reintroduced in March of 2001 with the proposal of increasing the sentence of criminal harassment to ten years from the previous five year sentence (Department of Justice, 2009). Bill C-79 had been amended in December of 1999, to facilitate victim’s participation as well as that of the witnesses during the process of criminal justice (Department of Justice, 2009). For example, before the accused can be released on bail, the safety of the victim must be taken into account (Department of Justice, 2009). Bill C-27 was reformed and enforced in May of 1997; it redefined the definition of criminal harassment (Department of Justice, 2009). During a sentencing of the accused, Bill C-27 also requires that the courts take breaching of court orders into consideration (Department of Justice, 2009). Bill C-41 which discusses sentencing was amended in 1996; thus allowing women to seek compensation for expenses accumulated from the needing to leave their house due to the abuse. (Department of Justice, 2009). Bill C-42 was reinforced during February of 1995; thus making it easier for victims to receive peace bonds. Individuals and the police are now able to request a peace bond on a victim’s behalf who is at risk of harm (Department of Justice, 2009). The penalty for violating a peace bond has been raised from half a year to two years (Department of Justice, 2009). The final bill reformed was Bill C-126 which created a new charge of criminal harassment known as anti-stalking (Department of Justice, 2009). Shelter programs have been a way of society trying to help women of domestic violence (Koss, White & Kazdin, 2011, p. 185). These programs have advanced a lot since they were introduced. Early shelters were only able to offer temporary support in the form of beds (Koss, White & Kazdin, 2011, p. 185). Fortunately, shelter programs have advanced to offer more immediate services to the victims. Today, many of the programs offer emergency shelter, support groups, crisis lines which are open 24/7, counseling services, programs for children and advocacy for the victims (Koss, White & Kazdin, 2011, p. 185). Fortunately, shelters have educated victims on their rights and options, taught them about community resources, shown them additional safety strategies and given them hope for the future (Sullivan, O’Halloran & Lyon, 2008). First response teams are in place to provide safety to victimized women. The team usually consists of social workers and/or trained advocates who assist police officers during or shortly after domestic violence arrests occur (Koss, White & Kazdin, 2011, p. 185). These teams promote the message to abusers that legal consequences result from their harmful behavior and they also educate victims about resources and community services available (Koss, White & Kazdin, 2011, p. 185). Discussion There are many ways in which society suffers from domestic violence against women. Family relationships suffer severely when women endure these unhealthy relationships (Duffy & Momirov, 1997, p. 6). Family members are harmed as well (Duffy & Momirov, 19997, p. 6); for example: observing violence can affect the observer in a physical, mental, and/or emotional manner. Victims of the violence may feel humiliated (Duffy & Momirov, 1997, p. 6). One reason a victim may feel humiliated is that the abuser is a loved one for whom they trust (Duffy & Momirov, 1997, p. 6). The humiliation is usually experienced not only by the victim but also the accused but this may occur at differing times (Duffy & Momirov, 1997, p. ). The victim is likely to experience shame due to the belief that they are being attacked (Duffy & Momirov, 1997, p. 6). Considering society doesn’t want to experience negative emotions, the victims and/or accusers may try to avoid the feeling of shame thus leading to the possibility of them becoming violent (Duffy & Momirov, 1997, p. 6). The act of violence also affects those who witness it (Duffy & Momirov, 1997, p. 6). Those who have witnessed violence and then engage in relationships with others are likely to realize that their relationships are tainted (Duffy & Momirov, 1997, p. ). Due to these tainted relationships, institutions such as the police, the penal system, social services and the courts get involved with the issue to try and break the cycle (Duffy & Momirov, 19997, p. 6). Individuals fail to intervene in conflicts of domestic violence due to existent stereotypes. Many people still feel as though the issue is still a private matter, should only be dealt and discussed within the family and this it is a minor offence (Berry, 2000, p. 23). Unfortunately, people also believe they are helpless and cannot stop it issue from occurring (Berry, 2000, p. 3). Many people still believe that the issue is rare, thus they may train them self to believe it isn’t really occurring (Berry, 2000, p. 22). It is believed by some that women are naturally passive and men are to be inherently aggressive, therefore abuse is inevitable and part of human nature (Berry, 2000, p. 23). Some believe that the women provoke the violence through getting angry at the man, nagging, or speaking their minds; thus leading to the women deserving to be beaten (Berry, 2000, p. 22). Furthermore others believe it is a problem due to increased poverty or stress, thus making it limited to those of a lower class (Berry, 2000, 23). Despite the negative consequences women face in these abusive relationships with men, some choose to not seek help. Many women may feel as though they are forced to stay in these relationships to avoid becoming a lone mother living a life of poverty (Crow & Gotell, 2009, p. 85). One can understand why women may fear becoming victims of poverty because despite their wages increasing, they still earn far less than men (Crow & Gotell, 20009, p. 5). Walikhanna (2009) has many thoughts of why women stay: 1) women may keep the issue silent for the sake of their children 2) education or training may be lacking thus they are dependent on the man 3) they may believe the abuse is part of their fate or a way of living (p. 72). The women may fear the man will seek revenge (Department of Justice, 2009). Victims may live in isolated communities or face communication, cultural or language barriers (Department of Justice, 2009). Furthermore, these are but few of the reasons the issue is still prevalent thus the authorities are unable to intervene. Sometimes strategies engaged prove to be ineffective. During the beginning of an abusive relationship, the women usually employ various strategies to diminish the violence (Denmark, Rabinowitz & Sechzer, 2005, p. 398). They may call the police, seek the help of family members or the church, turn to their doctors or try to change their characteristics which the man criticizes (Denmark, Rabinowitz & Sechzer, 2005, p. 396). Unfortunately, they men will find other ways to criticize the women, the police may only diffuse the present situation, family members and/or the church may advise the women to do everything in the relationship to salvage their families and doctors may respond to the women with sleeping pills, antidepressants and tranquilizers (Denmark, Rabinowitz & Sechzer, 2005, p. 396). Future Outcome Despite all the changes society has implemented, more needs to be done to make this issue non-existent. Lots of cases in which the women are abused go unreported to police but fortunately the reported cases have increased (Department of Justice, 2009). Presently, the stigma once attached to women who admit to being victimized and seek help has declined (Berry, p. 22). Fortunately, as more stories make public awareness, their attitudes regarding the issue their attitudes are changing; they are becoming more aware of its detrimental effects as well as the negative consequences of not getting involved (Berry 1995). Community implemented programs attacking domestic violence has also seen amazing results (Berry, 1995, p. 27). The effectiveness of all future outreach programs depend on the communities attitudes (Sen, 1999, p. 37). It has been suggested that all money used to stop domestic violence has promoted the victim instead providing social solutions (Sen, 1999, p. 37). For Example: the accused are threatened with a jail sense instead of trying to change the man’s ideology which causes to seek power though the use of violence and intimidation (Sen, 1999, p. 37). Futhermore it has been thought that men who abuse women do not believe they are criminals; one study found that 80 percent of those accused has no previous contact with the law (Sen, 1999, p. 36). Unfortunately, recognizing an abuser is not easy (Walikhanna, 2009, p. 3), therefore one way of intervening in cases of domestic violence is being able to recognize the signs. Signs of a women being abused include: being anxious or afraid to please their man, doing everything he says, going along with what he does, women checking in with their partner often to report their actions, constant harassing telephone calls or the women discussing her partner as possessive, jealous or having a temper (Smith & Segal, 2011). Signs of physical use include: having frequent accidental injuries, constant absences without explanations, and wearing clothing which hides marks (Smith & Segal, 2011). Signs of isolation include: restrictions to see friends and family, limited access to credit cards, money or a vehicle and rarely being allowed in public without their partner. Furthermore, another type of abuse to observe for is psychological. Signs include: low self-esteem, depression, anxiousness, being suicidal and expression of drastic personality changes (Smith & Segal, 2011). Despite various signs to observe to identify abuse, it is important to note that these are only signs, just because an individual is experiencing a sign does not mean she is a victim of abuse. These signs are only listed to better help society identify victims. Conclusion This paper discussed the changing of domestic violence from that of a private issue to becoming a public issue. Various attitudes, beliefs and interventions were also discussed. Feminists believe society’s emphasis on patriarchal values is linked to women being victimized by men (Watto, 2009, p. 561). Victimization of women is shown through the division of labour. The emergence of feminism lead to domestic violence of women becoming recognized as an issue (Duffy & Momirov, 1997, p. 3). Feminism gained successes in relation to various issues. One of their great victory’s which had violence against women recognized as an issue arose from the battered women’s movement in the 1960’s (Schneider, 1991). Following increased awareness of the problem, the Government of Canada has implemented various interventions to try and rid the country of the problem. Not only are women victims in t his practice but so is society as a whole. Stereotypes are still present causing witnesses not to intervene. Some victims choose not to seek help despite the impact is has on them negatively. Unfortunately, there are victims who try to get help but are unsuccessful. Furthermore, despite all the progress made which deems this behavior unacceptable, it will continue to exist until more progress can be reached. In an effort to rid the future of the problem, emphasis needs to focus on society’s attitudes and beliefs as well as being able to recognize possible signs of abuse. Nevertheless, this will hopefully rid society of the issue and if not then hopefully make it one that is near non-existent.

Autism Observation Paper Essay

Autism is a physical condition linked to abnormal biology and chemistry in the brain. Even though the causes for these abnormalities are unknown, there been a number of possible ways to have autism. For example the mothers diet while being pregnant, digestive track changes, mercury poisoning (which is one of the most well known reasonings), the body’s inability to properly use vitamins and minerals, or vaccine sensitivity. Many parents worry that giving their child a vaccine may lead up to them having autism, and being that a child can seem normal up to eighteen months, parents sometimes would rather wait till the child’s older to give them shots. However it’s important to think of your child’s risks of not having the vaccination. All routine childhood vaccines are available in single-dose forms that do not contain added mercury. Studies have shown that autism effect’s more boys in the world then girls. Some doctors believe’s the increase incidence of autism is from learning new definitions of autism. For example a child that is diagnosed with high-functioning autism today, was probably looked at as odd or strange thirty years ago. Some symptoms parents start to notice around eighteen months is while pretend play, social interactions or verbal or non-verbal communications. Some children appear normal up to age two and then start to regress, lose language and social skills they have gained, which is called regressive autism. Some examples are sensitivity to sight, hearing, touch, smell, or taste. Have unusual distress, repeats body movements, or shows unusual attachments to objects. Some symptoms can moderate to severe like communicating with gestures instead of words, cannot start a conversation, speaks slow or not at all or repeats words that they’ve remembered from before. Children with autism usually don’t make friends, shows lack of empathy, may treat people like objects, or is withdrawn. Some act up, have short attention spans, or gets stuck on single topics. A child with autism can’t exactly go through a day like a normal child, but with help from others, they can definitely try to. They are very smart children, just may have a harder time understanding and doing things. For my site visit, I visited an after school program call â€Å"The Ymywaha† which is owned privately. In the classroom I visited the children were twos and threes. There were about fifteen kids in the class including two autistic boys around three years old. There was one main teacher, and assistant teacher and a helper for the two boys. I visited this class from three-thirty pm to around four-forty five pm. When I arrived the children were coming in from playing on the playground. They came in washed their hands and got ready to sit and talk about the butterflies they were growing in class. At this point, their butterflies were still in cacoons. Not only did they have butterflies in the classroom they had baby chicks. The children were well behaved and cooperated with the teachers. Except for one little boy, he was one that is autistic. When the teacher gathered the children to talk about their butterflies, he wanted to play with the baby chicks. He turned around ignored the class and stared at the baby chicks. A little long after, he picked up one of the chicks and held on to it really tight. His helper asked him to put the chick back, but he refused, she asked again and he refused, She then explained that they are talking about the butterflies right now and after then were done then he can play with the baby chicks. He dropped the chick and ran out the classroom. The helper teacher ran after him and spoke to him out in the hall. He walked back in calmly and sat with his other children. When I asked, I was told he was very rebellious. Quickly he got involved with the butterflies and forgot about wanting to play with the baby chicks. Meanwhile the other little boy with autism in the same class was more withdrawn from everyone. He was very quite and didn’t say or want to do much. He didn’t really interact with the other children. When I asked about him, the teachers explained that he doesn’t speak very well, but he’s very smart. It would take him a while to get things done but he does a great job. During the day at daycare he had speech classes to help his development in language. I enjoyed my visit. It taught me not one but, about two types of autism and helped me understand it a little better. I got to witness an autistic child act-up and see how a teacher would handle that child. I also enjoy the children in the class. I couldn’t believe how smart those little people are.